Rule Developing Experimentation and Its Use in Marketing Research Paper

Rule Developing Experimentation and Its Use in Marketing - Research Paper Example   It means with a very little effort a huge target can be achieved. There need be motivation and interest to adhere to it. RDE helps in yielding high dividends. RDE can be implemented for not only consumer good companies but also B2B companies. RDE is nothing new, but Alex Gofman and Howard R. Moskowitz, have exhibited the essence of it very nicely in their book. Importance is given to the development of items that are not yet well known in the market, but that will be highly acceptable. RDE is a solution-oriented learning experience. The customers help the manufacturer to design and create a new product, which has come to the market after it is produced through rigorous research and development programme. â€Å"It is systemized solution-oriented business process experimentation that designs, tests, modifies alternate ideas, packages, products or services in a disciplined way using the experimental design so that the developer and marketer discover what appeals to the customer, ev en if the customer articulate the need, much less the solution.†(Alex Gofman & Howard Moskowitz, 2007) At the outset, it was made use of for product optimization and then message optimization for advertising, promotions etc. Applications of RDE are there in any field that involves human choices and decisions, for example, social science, public policies, the stock market, crisis communication management etc. 1) Identify the free offer that accompanies the main product. For example, take the case of credit card. The offer may be with respect to Annual Percentage Rate (APR). In the case of others, there may be rewards, monetary benefits or discounts. The structure of RDE grants higher success than any other method. It is accepted that the seven steps are given above clearly make the consumer understand the problem and arrive at the proper solution.

Deinstitutionalization of the Mentally lll Essay Example for Free

Deinstitutionalization of the Mentally lll Essay 1. In my article deinstitutionalization bought on some positive effects by lowering health cost, but negative consequences came into the community also. Bringing into effect such things as Medicare and Medicaid, and the establishment of the Community Health Centers. This began to make it easier for the mentally ill to be able to get the help and rehabilitation that was needed rather than just being placed in mental institutions and left alone. â€Å"For example, decreases in inpatient mental health care can be complemented by increases in outpatient mental health care. Decreases in inpatient mental health care can also be paired with increases in other forms of care, such as social welfare, criminal justice, or nursing home care.† The article showed that the government began to step up and take part in the care of the mentally ill, making a way for the public hospitals to no longer be responsible for the mentally ill and private sectors to step in and offer more one on one care. Deinstitutionalization began to free up rooms in hospitals and offer lower medical costs 2. But crime and homelessness did increase in local communities. Some former patients went home to their families, some to nursing homes, where almost a million mentally ill Americans are said to now live. Because of the amount of mentally ill people being released or put out of mental institutions this bought on a great deal of them living on the streets and forced to rob and steal in order to survive. This is how the crime rate began to increase, mentally starting to be placed in the jail or prison system, which in the long run ends up costing far more than one being placed in a mental institution. Communicable diseases became more prominent as women began prostituting themselves. With their mental capacity questionable, it was still believed that people didn’t care what happened to them nor did they pay attention to their needs, until the epidemic of STD’s such as AIDS began to rise and start to affect what was considered to be â€Å"normal Americans households.†

Cloning and Mind Zombies :: Cloning Argumentative Persuasive Argument

Cloning and Mind Zombies Cloning, is it the thing of the future? Or is it a start of a new generation? To some, cloning could give back a life. A life of fun, happiness, and freedom. For others it could mean destruction, evil, or power. Throughout this paper, you the reader, should get a better concept of cloning, it's ethics, the pro's and con's, and the concerns it has brought up. You will hear the good of what cloning can do and the bad that comes with the good. Most of the information you will read about in this paper is what might become of the future. Even though the cloning of humans can not be accomplished. When it is the possibilities are endless. What is cloning? How did it get started? Well, it is like this. A clone is a genetic copy or a replica of an living organism. But, when you gear cloning doesn't a Si-Fi movie come to mind. Like when they take a nucleus, place it in a egg, put the egg in a incubator, and when it hatches it's an exact replica of the original being (Lawren). Though this has been done with frogs it has not yet been accomplished with mammals (Lawren). Another way to make a clone, as they do in the cattle buisness, is to split the cells of a early multi-celled embryo which will form two new embryos (Lawren). For it to get started into practice it took more than fifty years of questioning and testing. The first successful cloning experiment involved a leopard frog. It took place in, 1952 with group of scientist from the Institute for Cancer Research in Philadelphia (Lawren). To clone the frog they used an embryonic frog cell nucleus(Margery). 1962, John Gurdon of Cambridge University cloned a toad that survive threw adulthood and was able to reproduce. He was also the first to take a nucleus from a fully contrast tadpole intestinal cell and cloned toads(Robertson). As you can see we are getting close to the cloning of humans. 1981, Steen Willadsen was the first to clone a artificial chimera. He did this by mixing a sheep and a goat getting the result of a "geep" (Lawren). It had the body shape and the head of a goat, and a dappled coat which had large patches of sheep's wool. 1984, Willadsen cloned the first verifiable mammal, using embryonic nuclei transplant into an unfertilized sheep egg. Also in, 1986, when he worked for Texas bioengineering company (Lawren). By using the embryonic nuclei, he produces the first cloned calves from cattle.

Monopolistic Competition

INTRODUCTION Pure monopoly and perfect competition are two extreme cases of market structure. In reality, there are markets having large number of producers competing with each other in order to sell their product in the market. Thus, there is monopoly on the one hand and perfect competition, on the other hand. Such a mixture of monopoly and perfect competition is called monopolistic competition. It is a case of imperfect competition. The model of monopolistic competition describes a common  market structure  in which firms have many competitors, but each one sells a slightly different product. Monopolistic competition as a market structure was first identified in the 1930s by American economist  Edward Chamberlin, and English economist  Joan Robinson. Many small businesses operate under conditions of monopolistic competition, including independently owned and operated high-street stores and restaurants. In the case of restaurants, each one offers something different and possesses an element of uniqueness, but all are essentially competing for the same customers. The aim of the given work is the study of monopolistic competition. The paper consists of introduction, body, conclusion and bibliography. In the introduction the aim of the work is defined and the structure of the paper is described. The body gives the definition of monopolistic competition, studies it main characteristics and comments on the main advantages and disadvantages of monopolistic competition. Conclusion sums up the results of the study. Bibliography comprises the list of references used when carrying out the work. MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION Monopolistic competition  is a type of  imperfect competition  such that competing producers sell products that are  differentiated  from one another as good but not perfect  substitutes, such as from branding, quality, or location. In monopolistic competition, a firm takes the prices charged by its rivals as given and ignores the impact of its own prices on the prices of other firms. In a monopolistically competitive market, firms can behave like  monopolies  in the  short run, including by using market power to generate profit. In the  long run, however, other firms enter the market and the benefits of differentiation decrease with competition; the market becomes more like a  perfectly competitive  one where firms cannot gain economic profit. In practice, however, if consumer rationality/innovativeness is low and heuristics are preferred,  monopolistic competition  can fall into  natural monopoly, even in the complete absence of government intervention. In the presence of coercive government, monopolistic competition will fall into  government-granted monopoly. Unlike perfect competition, the firm maintains spare capacity. Models of monopolistic competition are often used to model industries. Examples of industries with market structures similar to monopolistic competition include  restaurants,  cereal,  clothing,  shoes, and service industries in large cities. The â€Å"founding father† of the theory of monopolistic competition is  Edward Hastings Chamberlin, who wrote a pioneering book on the subject  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Theory of Monopolistic Competition†Ã‚  (1933). Joan Robinson  published a book  Ã¢â‚¬Å"The Economics of Imperfect Competition†Ã‚  with a comparable theme of distinguishing perfect from imperfect competition. Monopolistically competitive markets have the following characteristics: * There are many producers and many consumers in the market, and no business has total control over the market price. * Consumers perceive that there are non-price differences among the competitors' products. There are few  barriers to entry  and exit. * Producers have a degree of control over price. The long-run characteristics of a monopolistically competitive market are almost the same as a perfectly competitive market. Two differences between the two are that monopolistic competition produces heterogeneous products and that monopolistic competition involves a great deal of non-price competition, which is based on subtle product differentiation. A firm making profits in the short run will nonetheless only  break even  in the long run because demand will decrease and average total cost will increase. This means in the long run, a monopolistically competitive firm will make zero  economic profit. This illustrates the amount of influence the firm has over the market; because of brand loyalty, it can raise its prices without losing all of its customers. This means that an individual firm's demand curve is downward sloping, in contrast to perfect competition, which has a  perfectly elastic  demand schedule. Monopolistically competitive markets exhibit the following characteristics: 1. Each firm makes independent decisions about price and output, based on its product, its market, and its  costs of production. . Knowledge is widely spread between participants, but it is unlikely to be perfect. For example, diners can review all the menus available from restaurants in a town, before they make their choice. Once inside the restaurant, they can view the menu again, before ordering. However, they cannot fully appreciate the restaurant or the meal until after they have dined. 3. The   entrepreneur  has a more significant role than in firms that are perfectly competitive because of the increased risks associated with decision making. 4. There is freedom to enter or leave the market, as there are no major  barriers to entry  or exit. 5. A central feature of monopolistic competition is that products are differentiated. There are four main types of differentiation: a. Physical product differentiation, where firms use size, design, colour, shape, performance, and features to make their products different. For example, consumer electronics can easily be physically differentiated. b. Marketing differentiation, where firms try to differentiate their product by distinctive packaging and other promotional techniques. For example, breakfast cereals can easily be differentiated through packaging. c. Human capital differentiation, where the firm creates differences through the skill of its employees, the level of training received, distinctive uniforms, and so on. d. Differentiation through distribution, including distribution via mail order or through internet shopping, such as Amazon. com, which differentiates itself from traditional bookstores by selling online. 6. Firms are  price makers  and are faced with a downward sloping  demand curve. Because each firm makes a unique product, it can charge a higher or lower price than its rivals. The firm can set its own price and does not have to ‘take' it from the industry as a whole, though the industry price may be a guideline, or becomes a constraint. This also means that the demand curve will slope downwards. 7. Firms  operating under monopolistic competition usually  have to engage in advertising. Firms are often in fierce competition with other (local) firms offering a similar product or service, and may need to advertise on a local basis, to let customers know their differences. Common methods of advertising for these firms are through local press and radio, local cinema, posters, leaflets and special promotions. 8. Monopolistically competitive firms are assumed to be  profit maximisers  because firms tend to be small with entrepreneurs actively involved in managing the business. 9. There are usually a large numbers of independent firms competing in the market. Product differentiation Monopolistic competition firms sell products that have real or perceived non-price differences. However, the differences are not so great as to eliminate other goods as substitutes. Technically, the cross price elasticity of demand between goods in such a market is positive. In fact, the XED would be high. Monopolistic competition goods are best described as close but imperfect substitutes. The goods perform the same basic functions but have differences in qualities such as type, style, quality, reputation, appearance, and location that tend to distinguish them from each other. For example, the basic function of motor vehicles is basically the same – to move people and objects from point A to B in reasonable comfort and safety. Yet there are many different types of motor vehicles such as motor scooters, motor cycles, trucks, cars and SUVs and many variations even within these categories. There are many firms in each monopolistic competition product group and many firms on the side lines prepared to enter the market. A product group is a â€Å"collection of similar products†. The fact that there are â€Å"many firms† gives each MC firm the freedom to set prices without engaging in strategic decision making regarding the prices of other firms and each firm's actions have a negligible impact on the market. For example, a firm could cut prices and increase sales without fear that its actions will prompt retaliatory responses from competitors. How many firms will an MC market structure support at market equilibrium? The answer depends on factors such as fixed costs, economies of scale and the degree of product differentiation. For example, the higher the fixed costs, the fewer firms the market will support. Also the greater the degree of product differentiation – the more the firm can separate itself from the pack – the fewer firms there will be at market equilibrium. In the long run there is free entry and exit. There are numerous firms waiting to enter the market each with its own â€Å"unique† product or in pursuit of positive profits and any firm unable to cover its costs can leave the market without incurring liquidation costs. This assumption implies that there are low start up costs, no sunk costs and no exit costs. The cost of entering and exit is very low. Each monopolistic competition firm independently sets the terms of exchange for its product. The firm gives no consideration to what effect its decision may have on competitors. The theory is that any action will have such a negligible effect on the overall market demand that an MC firm can act without fear of prompting heightened competition. In other words each firm feels free to set prices as if it were a monopoly rather than an oligopoly. Monopolistic competition firms have some degree of market power. Market power means that the firm has control over the terms and conditions of exchange. An MC firm can raise it prices without losing all its customers. The firm can also lower prices without triggering a potentially ruinous price war with competitors. The source of an MC firm's market power is not barriers to entry since they are low. Rather, an MC firm has market power because it has relatively few competitors, those competitors do not engage in strategic decision making and the firms sells differentiated product. Market power also means that an MC firm faces a downward sloping demand curve. The demand curve is highly elastic although not â€Å"flat†. There are two sources of inefficiency in the MC market structure. First, at its optimum output the firm charges a price that exceeds marginal costs, the MC firm maximizes profits where MR = MC. Since the MC firm's demand curve is downward sloping this means that the firm will be charging a price that exceeds marginal costs. The monopoly power possessed by an MC firm means that at its profit maximizing level of production there will be a net loss of consumer (and producer) surplus. The second source of inefficiency is the fact that MC firms operate with excess capacity. That is, the MC firm's profit maximizing output is less than the output associated with minimum average cost. Both a PC and MC firm will operate at a point where demand or price equals average cost. For a PC firm this equilibrium condition occurs where the perfectly elastic demand curve equals minimum average cost. A MC firm’s demand curve is not flat but is downward sloping. Thus in the long run the demand curve will be tangent to the long run average cost curve at a point to the left of its minimum. The result is excess capacity. While monopolistically competitive firms are inefficient, it is usually the case that the costs of regulating prices for every product that is sold in monopolistic competition far exceed the benefits of such regulation. The government would have to regulate all firms that sold heterogeneous products—an impossible proposition in a  market economy. A monopolistically competitive firm might be said to be marginally inefficient because the firm produces at an output where average total cost is not a minimum. A monopolistically competitive market might be said to be a marginally inefficient market structure because marginal cost is less than price in the long run. Another concern of critics of monopolistic competition is that it fosters  advertising  and the creation of  brand names. Critics argue that advertising induces customers into spending more on products because of the name associated with them rather than because of rational factors. Defenders of advertising dispute this, arguing that brand names can represent a guarantee of quality and that advertising helps reduce the cost to consumers of weighing the tradeoffs of numerous competing brands. There are unique information and information processing costs associated with selecting a brand in a monopolistically competitive environment. In a monopoly market, the consumer is faced with a single brand, making information gathering relatively inexpensive. In a perfectly competitive industry, the consumer is faced with many brands, but because the brands are virtually identical information gathering is also relatively inexpensive. In a monopolistically competitive market, the consumer must collect and process information on a large number of different brands to be able to select the best of them. In many cases, the cost of gathering information necessary to selecting the best brand can exceed the benefit of consuming the best brand instead of a randomly selected brand. Evidence suggests that consumers use information obtained from advertising not only to assess the single brand advertised, but also to infer the possible existence of brands that the consumer has, heretofore, not observed, as well as to infer consumer satisfaction with brands similar to the advertised brand The advantages of monopolistic competition Monopolistic competition can bring the following advantages: 1. There are no significant  barriers to entry; therefore markets are relatively  contestable. 2. Differentiation creates diversity, choice and utility. For example, a typical high street in any town will have a number of different restaurants from which to choose. 3. The market is more efficient than monopoly but less efficient than perfect competition – less allocatively and less productively efficient. However, they may be dynamically efficient, innovative in terms of new production processes or new products. For example, retailers often constantly have to develop new ways to attract and retain local custom. The disadvantages of monopolistic competition There are several potential disadvantages associated with monopolistic competition, including: 1. Some differentiation does not create utility but generates unnecessary waste, such as excess packaging. Advertising may also be considered wasteful, though most is informative rather than persuasive. 2. As the diagram illustrates, assuming profit maximisation, there is allocative inefficiency in both the long and short run. This is  because price is above marginal cost in both cases. In the long run the firm is less allocatively inefficient, but it is still inefficient. . There is a tendency for excess capacity because firms can never fully exploit their fixed factors because mass production is difficult. This means they are  productively inefficient  in both the long and short run. However, this is may be outweighed by the advantages of diversity and choice. As an economic model of competition, monopolistic competition is more realistic than perfect competition – many famil iar and commonplace markets have many of the characteristics of this model. Conclusion Our study gives us an opportunity to come to the following conclusion. Monopolistic competition is a  market structure  in which several or many  sellers  each produce similar, but  slightly  differentiated  products. Each producer  can set its  price  and quantity without affecting the marketplace as a whole. Monopolistic competition differs from perfect competition in that production does not take place at the lowest possible cost. Because of this, firms are left with excess production capacity. It is a type of competition within an industry where: * All firms produce similar yet not perfectly substitutable products. All firms are able to enter the industry if the profits are attractive. * All firms are profit maximizers. * All firms have some market power, which means none are price takers. Monopolistic competition has certain features, one of which is that there are large number of sellers producing differentiated products. So, competition among them is very keen. Since number of sellers is large, each seller produces a very smal l part of market supply. So no seller is in a position to control price of product. Every firm is limited in its size. Product differentiation is one of the most important features of monopolistic competition. In perfect competition, products are homogeneous in nature. On the contrary, here, every producer tries to keep his product dissimilar than his rival's product in order to maintain his separate identity. This boosts up the competition in market. So, every firm acquires some monopoly power. The feature of freedom of entry and exit leads to stiff competition in market. Free entry into the market enables new firms to come with close substitutes. Free entry or exit maintains normal profit in the market for a longer span of time. Selling cost is another unique feature of monopolistic competition. In such type of market, due to product differentiation, every firm has to incur some additional expenditure in the form of selling cost. This cost includes sales promotion expenses, advertisement expenses, salaries of marketing staff, etc. And the last feature of monopolistic competition is that a firm is facing downward sloping demand curve i. e. elastic demand curve. It means one can sell more at lower price and vice versa. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Ayers R. and Collinge R. , Microeconomics, Pearson, 2003 2. J. Gans, S. King, N. Gregory Mankiw, Principles of Economics, Thomson Learning, 2003 3. Hirschey, M, Managerial Economics Rev. Ed, Dryden, 2000 4. http://www. britannica. com/EBchecked/topic/390037/monopolistic-competition 5. http://www. investopedia. com/terms/m/monopolisticmarket. asp 6. http://kalyan-city. blogspot. com/2010/11/monopolistic-competition-meaning. html Monopolistic Competition INTRODUCTION Pure monopoly and perfect competition are two extreme cases of market structure. In reality, there are markets having large number of producers competing with each other in order to sell their product in the market. Thus, there is monopoly on the one hand and perfect competition, on the other hand. Such a mixture of monopoly and perfect competition is called monopolistic competition. It is a case of imperfect competition. The model of monopolistic competition describes a common  market structure  in which firms have many competitors, but each one sells a slightly different product. Monopolistic competition as a market structure was first identified in the 1930s by American economist  Edward Chamberlin, and English economist  Joan Robinson. Many small businesses operate under conditions of monopolistic competition, including independently owned and operated high-street stores and restaurants. In the case of restaurants, each one offers something different and possesses an element of uniqueness, but all are essentially competing for the same customers. The aim of the given work is the study of monopolistic competition. The paper consists of introduction, body, conclusion and bibliography. In the introduction the aim of the work is defined and the structure of the paper is described. The body gives the definition of monopolistic competition, studies it main characteristics and comments on the main advantages and disadvantages of monopolistic competition. Conclusion sums up the results of the study. Bibliography comprises the list of references used when carrying out the work. MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION Monopolistic competition  is a type of  imperfect competition  such that competing producers sell products that are  differentiated  from one another as good but not perfect  substitutes, such as from branding, quality, or location. In monopolistic competition, a firm takes the prices charged by its rivals as given and ignores the impact of its own prices on the prices of other firms. In a monopolistically competitive market, firms can behave like  monopolies  in the  short run, including by using market power to generate profit. In the  long run, however, other firms enter the market and the benefits of differentiation decrease with competition; the market becomes more like a  perfectly competitive  one where firms cannot gain economic profit. In practice, however, if consumer rationality/innovativeness is low and heuristics are preferred,  monopolistic competition  can fall into  natural monopoly, even in the complete absence of government intervention. In the presence of coercive government, monopolistic competition will fall into  government-granted monopoly. Unlike perfect competition, the firm maintains spare capacity. Models of monopolistic competition are often used to model industries. Examples of industries with market structures similar to monopolistic competition include  restaurants,  cereal,  clothing,  shoes, and service industries in large cities. The â€Å"founding father† of the theory of monopolistic competition is  Edward Hastings Chamberlin, who wrote a pioneering book on the subject  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Theory of Monopolistic Competition†Ã‚  (1933). Joan Robinson  published a book  Ã¢â‚¬Å"The Economics of Imperfect Competition†Ã‚  with a comparable theme of distinguishing perfect from imperfect competition. Monopolistically competitive markets have the following characteristics: * There are many producers and many consumers in the market, and no business has total control over the market price. * Consumers perceive that there are non-price differences among the competitors' products. There are few  barriers to entry  and exit. * Producers have a degree of control over price. The long-run characteristics of a monopolistically competitive market are almost the same as a perfectly competitive market. Two differences between the two are that monopolistic competition produces heterogeneous products and that monopolistic competition involves a great deal of non-price competition, which is based on subtle product differentiation. A firm making profits in the short run will nonetheless only  break even  in the long run because demand will decrease and average total cost will increase. This means in the long run, a monopolistically competitive firm will make zero  economic profit. This illustrates the amount of influence the firm has over the market; because of brand loyalty, it can raise its prices without losing all of its customers. This means that an individual firm's demand curve is downward sloping, in contrast to perfect competition, which has a  perfectly elastic  demand schedule. Monopolistically competitive markets exhibit the following characteristics: 1. Each firm makes independent decisions about price and output, based on its product, its market, and its  costs of production. . Knowledge is widely spread between participants, but it is unlikely to be perfect. For example, diners can review all the menus available from restaurants in a town, before they make their choice. Once inside the restaurant, they can view the menu again, before ordering. However, they cannot fully appreciate the restaurant or the meal until after they have dined. 3. The   entrepreneur  has a more significant role than in firms that are perfectly competitive because of the increased risks associated with decision making. 4. There is freedom to enter or leave the market, as there are no major  barriers to entry  or exit. 5. A central feature of monopolistic competition is that products are differentiated. There are four main types of differentiation: a. Physical product differentiation, where firms use size, design, colour, shape, performance, and features to make their products different. For example, consumer electronics can easily be physically differentiated. b. Marketing differentiation, where firms try to differentiate their product by distinctive packaging and other promotional techniques. For example, breakfast cereals can easily be differentiated through packaging. c. Human capital differentiation, where the firm creates differences through the skill of its employees, the level of training received, distinctive uniforms, and so on. d. Differentiation through distribution, including distribution via mail order or through internet shopping, such as Amazon. com, which differentiates itself from traditional bookstores by selling online. 6. Firms are  price makers  and are faced with a downward sloping  demand curve. Because each firm makes a unique product, it can charge a higher or lower price than its rivals. The firm can set its own price and does not have to ‘take' it from the industry as a whole, though the industry price may be a guideline, or becomes a constraint. This also means that the demand curve will slope downwards. 7. Firms  operating under monopolistic competition usually  have to engage in advertising. Firms are often in fierce competition with other (local) firms offering a similar product or service, and may need to advertise on a local basis, to let customers know their differences. Common methods of advertising for these firms are through local press and radio, local cinema, posters, leaflets and special promotions. 8. Monopolistically competitive firms are assumed to be  profit maximisers  because firms tend to be small with entrepreneurs actively involved in managing the business. 9. There are usually a large numbers of independent firms competing in the market. Product differentiation Monopolistic competition firms sell products that have real or perceived non-price differences. However, the differences are not so great as to eliminate other goods as substitutes. Technically, the cross price elasticity of demand between goods in such a market is positive. In fact, the XED would be high. Monopolistic competition goods are best described as close but imperfect substitutes. The goods perform the same basic functions but have differences in qualities such as type, style, quality, reputation, appearance, and location that tend to distinguish them from each other. For example, the basic function of motor vehicles is basically the same – to move people and objects from point A to B in reasonable comfort and safety. Yet there are many different types of motor vehicles such as motor scooters, motor cycles, trucks, cars and SUVs and many variations even within these categories. There are many firms in each monopolistic competition product group and many firms on the side lines prepared to enter the market. A product group is a â€Å"collection of similar products†. The fact that there are â€Å"many firms† gives each MC firm the freedom to set prices without engaging in strategic decision making regarding the prices of other firms and each firm's actions have a negligible impact on the market. For example, a firm could cut prices and increase sales without fear that its actions will prompt retaliatory responses from competitors. How many firms will an MC market structure support at market equilibrium? The answer depends on factors such as fixed costs, economies of scale and the degree of product differentiation. For example, the higher the fixed costs, the fewer firms the market will support. Also the greater the degree of product differentiation – the more the firm can separate itself from the pack – the fewer firms there will be at market equilibrium. In the long run there is free entry and exit. There are numerous firms waiting to enter the market each with its own â€Å"unique† product or in pursuit of positive profits and any firm unable to cover its costs can leave the market without incurring liquidation costs. This assumption implies that there are low start up costs, no sunk costs and no exit costs. The cost of entering and exit is very low. Each monopolistic competition firm independently sets the terms of exchange for its product. The firm gives no consideration to what effect its decision may have on competitors. The theory is that any action will have such a negligible effect on the overall market demand that an MC firm can act without fear of prompting heightened competition. In other words each firm feels free to set prices as if it were a monopoly rather than an oligopoly. Monopolistic competition firms have some degree of market power. Market power means that the firm has control over the terms and conditions of exchange. An MC firm can raise it prices without losing all its customers. The firm can also lower prices without triggering a potentially ruinous price war with competitors. The source of an MC firm's market power is not barriers to entry since they are low. Rather, an MC firm has market power because it has relatively few competitors, those competitors do not engage in strategic decision making and the firms sells differentiated product. Market power also means that an MC firm faces a downward sloping demand curve. The demand curve is highly elastic although not â€Å"flat†. There are two sources of inefficiency in the MC market structure. First, at its optimum output the firm charges a price that exceeds marginal costs, the MC firm maximizes profits where MR = MC. Since the MC firm's demand curve is downward sloping this means that the firm will be charging a price that exceeds marginal costs. The monopoly power possessed by an MC firm means that at its profit maximizing level of production there will be a net loss of consumer (and producer) surplus. The second source of inefficiency is the fact that MC firms operate with excess capacity. That is, the MC firm's profit maximizing output is less than the output associated with minimum average cost. Both a PC and MC firm will operate at a point where demand or price equals average cost. For a PC firm this equilibrium condition occurs where the perfectly elastic demand curve equals minimum average cost. A MC firm’s demand curve is not flat but is downward sloping. Thus in the long run the demand curve will be tangent to the long run average cost curve at a point to the left of its minimum. The result is excess capacity. While monopolistically competitive firms are inefficient, it is usually the case that the costs of regulating prices for every product that is sold in monopolistic competition far exceed the benefits of such regulation. The government would have to regulate all firms that sold heterogeneous products—an impossible proposition in a  market economy. A monopolistically competitive firm might be said to be marginally inefficient because the firm produces at an output where average total cost is not a minimum. A monopolistically competitive market might be said to be a marginally inefficient market structure because marginal cost is less than price in the long run. Another concern of critics of monopolistic competition is that it fosters  advertising  and the creation of  brand names. Critics argue that advertising induces customers into spending more on products because of the name associated with them rather than because of rational factors. Defenders of advertising dispute this, arguing that brand names can represent a guarantee of quality and that advertising helps reduce the cost to consumers of weighing the tradeoffs of numerous competing brands. There are unique information and information processing costs associated with selecting a brand in a monopolistically competitive environment. In a monopoly market, the consumer is faced with a single brand, making information gathering relatively inexpensive. In a perfectly competitive industry, the consumer is faced with many brands, but because the brands are virtually identical information gathering is also relatively inexpensive. In a monopolistically competitive market, the consumer must collect and process information on a large number of different brands to be able to select the best of them. In many cases, the cost of gathering information necessary to selecting the best brand can exceed the benefit of consuming the best brand instead of a randomly selected brand. Evidence suggests that consumers use information obtained from advertising not only to assess the single brand advertised, but also to infer the possible existence of brands that the consumer has, heretofore, not observed, as well as to infer consumer satisfaction with brands similar to the advertised brand The advantages of monopolistic competition Monopolistic competition can bring the following advantages: 1. There are no significant  barriers to entry; therefore markets are relatively  contestable. 2. Differentiation creates diversity, choice and utility. For example, a typical high street in any town will have a number of different restaurants from which to choose. 3. The market is more efficient than monopoly but less efficient than perfect competition – less allocatively and less productively efficient. However, they may be dynamically efficient, innovative in terms of new production processes or new products. For example, retailers often constantly have to develop new ways to attract and retain local custom. The disadvantages of monopolistic competition There are several potential disadvantages associated with monopolistic competition, including: 1. Some differentiation does not create utility but generates unnecessary waste, such as excess packaging. Advertising may also be considered wasteful, though most is informative rather than persuasive. 2. As the diagram illustrates, assuming profit maximisation, there is allocative inefficiency in both the long and short run. This is  because price is above marginal cost in both cases. In the long run the firm is less allocatively inefficient, but it is still inefficient. . There is a tendency for excess capacity because firms can never fully exploit their fixed factors because mass production is difficult. This means they are  productively inefficient  in both the long and short run. However, this is may be outweighed by the advantages of diversity and choice. As an economic model of competition, monopolistic competition is more realistic than perfect competition – many famil iar and commonplace markets have many of the characteristics of this model. Conclusion Our study gives us an opportunity to come to the following conclusion. Monopolistic competition is a  market structure  in which several or many  sellers  each produce similar, but  slightly  differentiated  products. Each producer  can set its  price  and quantity without affecting the marketplace as a whole. Monopolistic competition differs from perfect competition in that production does not take place at the lowest possible cost. Because of this, firms are left with excess production capacity. It is a type of competition within an industry where: * All firms produce similar yet not perfectly substitutable products. All firms are able to enter the industry if the profits are attractive. * All firms are profit maximizers. * All firms have some market power, which means none are price takers. Monopolistic competition has certain features, one of which is that there are large number of sellers producing differentiated products. So, competition among them is very keen. Since number of sellers is large, each seller produces a very smal l part of market supply. So no seller is in a position to control price of product. Every firm is limited in its size. Product differentiation is one of the most important features of monopolistic competition. In perfect competition, products are homogeneous in nature. On the contrary, here, every producer tries to keep his product dissimilar than his rival's product in order to maintain his separate identity. This boosts up the competition in market. So, every firm acquires some monopoly power. The feature of freedom of entry and exit leads to stiff competition in market. Free entry into the market enables new firms to come with close substitutes. Free entry or exit maintains normal profit in the market for a longer span of time. Selling cost is another unique feature of monopolistic competition. In such type of market, due to product differentiation, every firm has to incur some additional expenditure in the form of selling cost. This cost includes sales promotion expenses, advertisement expenses, salaries of marketing staff, etc. And the last feature of monopolistic competition is that a firm is facing downward sloping demand curve i. e. elastic demand curve. It means one can sell more at lower price and vice versa. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Ayers R. and Collinge R. , Microeconomics, Pearson, 2003 2. J. Gans, S. King, N. Gregory Mankiw, Principles of Economics, Thomson Learning, 2003 3. Hirschey, M, Managerial Economics Rev. Ed, Dryden, 2000 4. http://www. britannica. com/EBchecked/topic/390037/monopolistic-competition 5. http://www. investopedia. com/terms/m/monopolisticmarket. asp 6. http://kalyan-city. blogspot. com/2010/11/monopolistic-competition-meaning. html

Marie Antoinette: History as a problem in film

When one thinks of the Coppola, one inevitably thinks of the great Francis Ford, whose striking Godfather movies have set the bar for dramatic storytelling and cinematography for generations of filmmakers to come.   However, recently, the younger Coppola, Sofia, has taken over the moviemaking role, and has sought to reinvent the historical story of Marie Antoinette, the infamous French queen beheaded at the start of the French Revolution.   However, for those expecting a serious, dour, and historically play by play rendering of the tragic (some say scandalous) life of the queen, they are in for somewhat of a surprise.Indeed, the intentionally contemporary, visually stunning twist on the well-known tale is jarring in its departures from traditional historical thought.   So, too the visual liberties do much to literally force the audience to see the young queen from a different perspective.   The problem is, however, although Coppola can assert that her attempt is an artistic o ne, it is also one of manipulation.That is because in the end, the audience is fully aware of the juxtaposition of their new, interpretation of Antoinette as delivered by the film, with the overwhelming force of historical fact (in as much as we are aware).   This departure from reality eventually leaves the audience feeling a bit cheated, as if the visual, auditory, and even literary ministrations of Coppola on the story have been nothing but a cheap trick—a meandering of whimsy intentionally downplaying the legitimate tragedy of Antoinette’s death and the serious principles behind the French Revolution.To be sure, Coppola’s Marie Antoinette is beautiful.   Released in 2006, the film is set and filmed in Versailles.   The audience meets the young queen as a new bride, delivered from her native Austria to the bosom of the French court.   From the beginning, Antoinette is presented as gentle, almost simple, and kind hearted—concerned with leaving h er family and her beloved pet dog behind to start a new life of duty and service at the behest of her family.Almost as striking as the gentleness of the queen, the visual imagery of the film is without par.   The colors are as vibrant as any 50’s Technicolor dream, and the screen is consistently resplendent with bright pinks, blues and pastel wonders beyond imagination.   This is particularly true of the costuming, which is rendered in striking richness both in color and texture—helping to evoke the extravagant luxury of the French Court and the life of the queen.In addition to the visually descriptive nature of the film, Antoinette’s relationship with her husband is portrayed as amazingly genteel, with her displaying endless patience for her husband’s quirky ways and obvious lack of sexual prowess.   Further, her important role as a mother and bearer of heirs is portrayed convincingly, with visual (only) mention of the death of one of her children in infancy.However, apart from this reflection of historical trivia, the film does little to delve deeply into any of the issues of the time, or of Antoinette’s life.   Further, even the casting of American’s Kirsten Dunst and Jason Shwartzman seems to function as a way to move the film away from historical accuracy, if only in the audience’s mind.   This is particularly true when one hears the somewhat jarring sound of Dunst’s and Shwartzman’s flat American accents against the stylized French-accented comments of the Mistress of the Court.Although one could say that Coppola’s portrayal of Antoinette in such a candy-pink, innocent and accommodating fashion (perhaps more devoid of malice due to her â€Å"straight forward† and simple American twang) could be authentic in that some of it describes the queen’s relative youth and innocence as she entered the court.  Ã‚   However, this does not progress to increased complexity, and the audience does not see her increased politicialization that by all historical accounts marks the last years of her life.Indeed, as historians point out, Marie Antoinette was political, some say a bit of an activist, determined to resist the changes brewing in the midst of the growing revolutionary fervor in the country.   In fact, the movie seems to curiously, if perhaps, intentionally stay away from any true politicalization, â€Å"ugliness,† unrest or upheaval.   Apart from one or two references to the â€Å"people† being hungry and their not being enough bread, one simply does not see the common people or their plight at all.â€Å"What revolution?,†the audience may wonder (perhaps more so amongst today’s less educated tween moviegoers).   Indeed, as the film closes, we are left with nary a glimpse in to the tragic fate of the queen.   Further, one would not imagine too horrible a fate, after all, according to Coppola’s portrayal, Antoinette would never have been so callous as to have said, â€Å"Let them eat cake!†Ã‚   Certainly she was too good for that!   After all, didn’t she give up getting new diamonds so that the people may eat?In addition to the creative storytelling that Coppola entertains throughout the film, the music, itself sets the soundtrack as a kind of point-making device to further help the audience to identify with the kind queen.   Strains of largely upbeat popular music (Bow Wow, Cindy Lauper) make everything seem more innocent, and heck, can’t the audience see they are â€Å"just like us,† not so foreign, not so historic!Yes, it could have been any wealthy American or European girl in her shoes.   One can even see Paris Hilton in Versailles.   Under this treatment, Antoinette seems less distant, complex, serious, and significant in history.   Indeed, all of the messages gleaned from her experiences and narrative seem to melt away to the tune.   Ye s, some classical music is incorporated into the film, but only after the jarring point of the modern has been thoroughly made.Although the cinematic techniques utilized by Coppola definitely lead the audience to reinterpret history, several of the references to historical fact are accurate.   After all, the French did help the young America against Great Britain, and they did deplete sizable financial stores from France (exacerbating the plight of the poor) (Brinton, 1963).   However, by the time these historical points are made in the film, the other visual, dialogue, and tonal points have been made. Historical errors and downright tragedies of perception seem insignificant, just another point of verbal backdrop rather than pivotal junction.In addition to the twisting of the audience’s perception of Antoinette as a function of tone (visual, dialogue, etc), Coppola also departs from historical fact to presumably make the movie â€Å"more interesting† to its audien ce—who are perhaps used to a â€Å"Dangerous Liaisons† kind of film.   Indeed, in departing from established historical fact and blithely embracing a supposed extramarital affair between Antoinette and the Count von Ferson, Coppila goes out of her way to add to history, simply for the entertainment value.Although one cannot defiantly prove that such an affair did not occur in reality, historical sources do not indicate that it did.   This is hardly a trivial point in that it further contemporizes Antoinette, implying that such matters were commonplace (as they are today), and carried little consequences.   The historical and religious reality of Antoinette’s times were all to different, with serious consequences for both royal and common wives who strayed from the marriage bed. Of course none of these issues are dealt with and the whole â€Å"affair† is portrayed as just one more pleasant visual interlude among many, without meaning or serious inter pretation.Given all this, if one were to accept that Coppola did in fact deliberately attempt to use cinematic devices and storytelling in order to create a new version of the story, is this problematic?   If such a film were simple entertainment the answer would be no.   However, the difficulty that comes along with dealing with a historical subject is that there is some expectation from the audience that an attempt toward accuracy be made.   Yes, costumes in the Antoinette court were probably very pretty.The queen might have been innocent, kind, sweet even.   Perhaps she never did say â€Å"let them eat cake.†Ã‚   Such an assertion would not be new (1963).   However, using technique to reframe the events of the movie, be it through music, cinematography or dialogue creates either a problem with history itself—in essence changing it for the audience if they are impressionable, or though creating frustration or even anger in those who know better—and p erhaps feel more than a bit cheated that the association of the character with the defining event of her times (the Revolution) was all but overlooked in film.Although Coppola, herself has stated that it was not her intention to deal with politics or the political reality of her subject (Dudec, 2006), she does—if by omission.   In fact, her infamous statement, â€Å"Marie Antoinette was not interested in politics, so why should I be?† (2006) is problematic on many levels.   First, in its erroneous assumption that Antoinette was not interested in politics, she indicates a real unfamiliarity with her protagonist which is troubling.   Second, by â€Å"not being interested in politics,† one has to wonder at the appropriateness of Coppola dealing with the subject matter at all.   Can one imagine, for instance, Frances Ford Coppola asserting, â€Å"I am not interested in organized crime.†?Coppola’s troubling attitude and treatment of the subject matter was so striking when the movie was screened in Cannes that the audience actually booed the film.   This may be in part due to the fact that Coppila did not take her information from respected historical sources.   Instead, she almost exclusively drew from Antonia Fraser’s contemporary biography, which itself is rife with similar flaws and omissions to the movie.In the end, the audience is never privy to the â€Å"meat† of the Antoinette story—a story that the young female audience members that Coppila obviously targets could only learn from.   For example, she never showcases her strength, intelligence, or real power.   She does not take time to fully draw the immense political opinion and pressures against her as a â€Å"foreign queen,† nor does she deal with the complex nature of her death, the differences between rumor and political reality.Of course, this is not to say that the film does not have its fans.   In fact, even among French audiences some appreciated the way in which Marie Antoinette was played outside of the norm.   Although some might argue that some French critics may be pleased that a large Hollywood producer would deal with the subject at all, one can assume that some found genuine satisfaction in the portrayal—puzzling or no.Thus, the problems with the film hinge directly on the historical material.   Given any other non-historical subject matter, the same story might be just fine.   An afternoon of entertainment and â€Å"lavish visual effects.†Ã‚   However, by choosing a historical subject—and an emotional one at that, Coppila evokes much more than she may intend.   Further, the reactions of audiences must be interpreted in the context of the subject matter, not simply on the basis of film quality, direction, art or sensibility.Audiences either like the film or hate it—and each opinion carries with it serious implications.   After all, if one likes the fil m what does that say about one’s view or knowledge of history?   Has the â€Å"magic† of film influenced that opinion, and by continuation, one’s historical view?   Conversely, should one hate the film, would that person lack the ability to appreciate the â€Å"beauty† of the visual art in the film?   Or, instead, does one’s consciousness of the subject matter as history prohibit any such appreciation?In the end, Coppola’s decision to use history as her muse may be the downfall of the film.   This because history demands a certain treatment in order to be molded into entertainment.   One cannot mould entertainment into history—it simply smacks of hollowness and superficiality—two of the most common criticisms of the film.Worse, one can see that (as in the case with this film), even in the presence of some truly spectacular cinematography and visual beauty—not to mention some pretty significant financial investm ents, it is not enough to overcome the historical liberties taken with the film.   It is as if her subject matter has become her stumbling block.   To be sure, one can assert that the film is great in part.   However, in part is not enough for true greatness.   No, Marie Antoinette will be no Lawrence of Arabia, enjoyed for generations to come—and isn’t that the true test of a film’s merit?Works CitedBrinton, Crane. A Decade of Revolution 1789-1799. Harper and Row, 1963. Dudec, A.   Cannes reality check. Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, 25, May 2006.   Retrieved on April 23, 2007, from, http://findarticles.com/?noadc=1

Its Always Si Vous Voulez, Never Si Vous Voudriez

Its Always Si Vous Voulez, Never Si Vous Voudriez Mistakes will always be made in French, and now you can learn from them. In English, I would like is softer and more polite than I want, and French has a similar distinction.  Instead of je veux (present), one says je voudrais  (conditional). But theres a snag in this equation: English speakers want to say the polite  if you like or if you would like, and they often end up translating this into French as si vous voudriez. The Mistake But si vous voudriez  would be a mistake.  In French, you cant say  si vous voudriez  to mean if you would like, because the French  conditional can never be used after  si (if).  You can only say  si vous voulez. This goes for the whole conditional conjugation:  For instance, si je voudrais  is wrong. But you can say  si je veux. And  si tu voudrais is not possible. But you can say  si tu veux. Memorize every person in the conditional  present of vouloir to recognize what to avoid in polite statements that include a si clause: je voudraistu voudraisil voudraitnous voudrionsvous voudriezils voudraient Vouloir and Polite Requests The verb vouloir (to want or to wish), one of the most common French verbs and one of the most useful irregular verbs, also beautifully expresses polite requests  in the conditional without a si clause present.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Je voudrais une pomme.   I would like an apple.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Je voudrais y aller avec vous.   I would like to go with you. In general, the French conditional mood is very similar to the English conditional mood. It describes events that are not guaranteed to occur; often they are dependent on certain conditions. While the French conditional mood has a full set of conjugations, the English equivalent is just the modal verb would plus a main verb. The French conditional is mainly used in  if...then  sentences  to express what would happen if a condition were met. The conditional is in the result (then) part of the clause, not the clause that follows  si  (if).   Ã‚  Si nous à ©tudiions, nous serions plus intelligents.If we studied, (then) we would be smarter.

Public Health Communication Quit Smoking

Public Health Communication Quit Smoking Smoking is considered to be one of the most burning problems of modern society. Cigarettes kill so many people each year that it turns out to be very difficult to present concrete numbers concerning how many Americans die because of smoking. People know a lot about the risk of dying because of lung cancer, caused by smoking, however, they still continue smoking and do not pay attention to really useful information and warnings. To my mind, observing the effects of smoking by means of pictures should help to evaluate how dangerous smoking could be and what should be done to prevent deaths because of smoking.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Public Health Communication: Quit Smoking specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Picture #1 The approaches, I choose to evaluate the problem of smoking, present a clear picture of smoking and its effects on people. A smoldering cigarette (Picture # 1) does not present certain danger; and even when a person smokes (Picture # 2), people do not feel any fear or loathing. However, when we see an embryo with a cigarette (Picture # 3) and comprehend how smoking is dangerous to unborn children, some terrible emotions appear, and smoking does not seem so simple and harmless. This is why the only thing people should do is to quit smoking and start smiling (Picture # 4). Picture #2 A smoker promotes own life’s end; this person does not have a face or even gender (Picture # 2). Smoking is dangerous to people and deprives them from a chance to live long and happy. The tone of my message by means of these photos is not about fear, but about the reality that is around people. It is about smoking as something integral to this life, as something that has a certain impact even on not yet born people. This is why, in order to prevent a disaster, we should quit smoking, become healthy, and start smiling. These photos create a kind of emotional imagery that demonstrates how infl uential smoking can be. Picture #3 The audience for these photos may be rather different: teenagers, who find smoking not dangerous; mothers, who should care about their future and current children; old people, who should serve as good examples and promote young people to drop this terrible habit. In fact, these pictures can be interesting and useful to everyone from different places, who are just interested in making this world healthier and safer. Smoking is a disaster, and people should be ready to fight against it.Advertising Looking for essay on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Picture #4 The Pictures # 2 and 4 are taken from the Internet; the Picture # 3 is from one scientific web-article that tells how smoking is dangerous to kinds. The Picture # 1 is taken from a local campaign. The person, who smokes this cigarette, does not want to be recognized, because he is not proud of what he is doing and thinks how to drop this bad habit soon.

3 Ways to Prepare for Layoffs (Just in Case)

3 Ways to Prepare for Layoffs (Just in Case) Your company is in upheaval. Rumors are flying. The big merger is just a few weeks away and the word of the day is restructuring. While it’s always best to keep your head in uncertain situations, even if you think your job is safe, it never hurts to be prepared.Here are three things you can do now to keep yourself from being blindsided when lay-off time comes around.1. Reach out to your networkAccept the worst in advance and do something about it. Get in touch with former bosses and colleagues. Put the phone tree into action. Explain what’s happening and what you might be looking for, and ask for help. Chances are, someone you’ve impressed in the past will be willing to put your name forward in the right situation. Or, if you’re uncomfortable asking for help, ask for advice. People will be happy to give it, and will still be made aware of your situation; should anything come up, you’d come to mind. Friends and family are also a valuable support syst em, and can often come through in a pinch.2. Plan how youll present your situationAt this point, a lay-off could be part of your career narrative, whether you’d like it to or not. Start figuring out how to work it into your elevator pitch. Come out swinging. Explain the situation clearly and with confidence, and then find a way to make lemonade. Demonstrate that you know your value, in spite of the difficult situation, and that you’re already working constructively to overcome it. That kind of pluck can go a long way with a hiring manager.3. Give yourself a makeoverMake sure your cover letter, LinkedIn profile, and portfolio are all fully updated and in perfect order. Make sure these valuable networking tools are doing exactly what you want them to, and telling the story you want them to tell. Consider making yourself a new set of business cards if you think you’ll soon be on the market.The point is to prepare for the worst, but remain optimistic that it will al l turn out for the best.3 Steps to Prepare for a Potential Layoff

Human Resource Management for Service Industries Assignment - 2

Human Resource Management for Service Industries - Assignment Example The alternative medical systems goal is to treat, diagnose and prevent mental or physical illness and often incorporate medication and non-medication therapies. It regards the human being to be a rare psychological, physical and spiritual entity. From this holistic approach, it is the pathological or physiological interaction among these aspects that defines health or illness. The origin of health or illness also relies on the interrelation between nature, the human being and the cosmos. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is guided by the principle that in order to prevent diseases the best approach would be health preservation. This healing system concurs with my beliefs regarding health or illness. It is essential for us to reinforce the health of our bodies before illness attacks rather than curing it after it has struck. Also, it is vital for us to live better lifestyles and have good nutrition choices before the insurgence of a disease rather opting to get prescriptions after problems have arisen. Alternative medical systems are holistic in that they tie physical symptoms around various aspects of the human being inclusive of his or her social and natural environment. They are basically person-centered. There is increased awareness globally on the necessity to maintain a healthy lifestyle. People are turning to strategies of prevention of diseases. Alternative medical systems offers best practices to future patients who wish to lead healthy life styles and prevent illness. Its effectiveness is gaining popularity among patients and its future embrace would be widened greatly. Roberti di Sarsina, P., Alivia, M., & Guadagni, P. (2012). Traditional, complementary and alternative medical systems and their contribution to personalisation, prediction and prevention in medicine—person-centred medicine. The EPMA Journal, 3(15), 1-10.

Argue the US should increase its use of natural gas Essay

Argue the US should increase its use of natural gas - Essay Example This will critically compare both the pros and cons of this form of fuel and the benefits of its use in the United States (Knittel 3). The choice of gas to use in our industries is no longer guided by the desires of an individual but the cost and availability of the said fuel. With major economies relying on fossil fuel for different functions including industrial and home use, the current reserves are being depleted at an alarming rate. Natural gas is currently one of the cheapest and safest gases around the world with the United States sitting on a huge reserve of the gas which is currently unexploited. The lack of interest on natural gas and its resultant lack of exploitation can be attributed to the negative misconceptions that have been generated towards this gas (Ratner 7). Natural gas is colorless and odorless and produce high amount of energy when combusted with no significant emissions that negatively harm the environment. It is one of the most abundant gases in the United S tates but is rarely exploited due to the countries over reliance on fossil fuel. It contains high concentration of hydrocarbons including methane, ethane and propane, which are currently generated from fossil fuel at a much higher cost on the environment and economy. As a country that is much preoccupied with fossil fuel, switching to natural gas can only be achieved through informed education approaches that provide the benefits of this source of gas as compared to the current source. This topic will be insightful in guiding the country’s energy policy makers in making a significant policy shift from fossil fuel to natural gas. A number of misconceptions also exist about natural gas as compared to fossil fuels that act to confuse the citizens as further. This topic seeks to handle these misconceptions by providing an argumentative approach on why the country must adopt natural gas as opposed to the current use of fossil fuel (Knittel 3). Natural gas is cleaner as compared to fossil fuels thus making it the current fuel preferred by utility companies in the United States. With the current emphasis on the need to reduce emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, the need for the adoption of a much cleaner gas makes natural gas the gas of choice. In addition, fossil fuels such as petroleum and gasoline, when combusted produces less energy as compared to natural gas but has higher amount of greenhouse effect as compared to natural gas. The increase in international lobbying for the adoption of safe and clean fuel supports the role of natural gas in the reduction of climate change, which occurs due to an increase in greenhouse gas emission from industries (Verrastro & Branch 5). However, natural gas has a finite nature that makes it unreliable source of energy to drive the massive industries in the United States and mitigate the impacts of global warming. Those who belong to this school of thought argue that despite the fact that natural gas is much cleaner as compared to fossil fuels, it is not as clean to enable it contribute significantly in the fight against climate change. Decreasing the prevalence of climate change cannot effectively be done using natural gas, as the opponents would want us to believe. This is farther from the truth, as the fight against climate change cannot be won through one major initiative but through well-calculated policies, which significantly

Portfolio Cover Letter Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

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Executive Summary - Case Study Example As a result the value of per-gallon price which was decided at that time was founded later to be much lower than anticipated. Moreover Novo was not ready to change the price. So, when the price in BRL was converted into US$ Baker found that there is significant lowering in profitability. Furthermore when Baker decided to borrow an amount in BRL from a Brazilian bank it discovered that the interest rate was 26% which was much higher than the rate (8.26%) in US. Most of the US companies started to shift their unit outside US with the purpose of focusing more on economies of scale and increase the market share. As a result most of the adhesive giants decided to focus on international sourcing and manufacturing capabilities. But unlike these companies Baker was not that involved in international sales and quite obviously company was about to see some significant decline in its sales. The problem of exchange rate was created because of its changing nature. As the exchange rate of US$ and BRL keep changing value of the price of any product would also keep changing. So the value of price per-gallon of Baker adhesives also changed when it was converted into dollar. Again the problem regarding the interest rate charged by the Brazilian bank was much higher than the rate by any US bank. This was because the inflation rate in Brazil was much higher. Higher interest rate was actually set by the government of Brazil in order to control the high inflat ion rate. In the adhesives market competition is intense and profit margin is slim. As a result most of the company has focused on the international sourcing and manufacturing capabilities. Baker adhesives also need to focus on the international market in order to stay ahead in the competition. Focusing on international business would enable the company to focus on scale economies. Furthermore flexible production system and good chemist are crucial in the adhesives business. So

Management decisions & control Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Management decisions & control - Research Paper Example The quest for growth which is majorly motivated by the company’s marketing design of maintaining retail stores as well its good business environment has come with a number of challenges. The company has in the recent years grappled the control problems ranging from quality control to management control and these issues have come with significant image considerations. Another very important problem the company has to and continues to face revolves around the supply chain owing to its vast network of stores which are located in very different locations. The company’s business proposition identified it as a home of solutions for athletic and sport apparel increasing sales considerably as well as growth but this may have misguided the growth strategy. The company recorded a very fast movement of products in some cases merchandise getting out of stock in stores within just three days. The rapid expansion also placed significant amounts of pressure on the supply chain; many stores were opened rapidly to increase presence and brand visibility and some of the stores were in total very bad locations with little sales are no demand for merchandise at all. Managing the inventory continued to be the most pressing problem that the company had to fix in a time when its stock price had started declining, sales had significantly gone down and competition was it its peak. Those stores located in the coastal regions for example frequently ran out of stock for smaller sizes of merchandise and this negatively impacted on sales, image and customer trust. At the same time those retail stores in other places for instance in Midwest recorded high sales in terms of large sizes of merchandise which also was fast going out of stock. This meant the company had a constant challenge with the management of its inventory and this inventory related had negative image on

Cas a Constant Struggle Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Cas a Constant Struggle - Essay Example However, aside from simply being able to give each person the capability of doing things that they ought to complete as individual beings in the community, liberty has also paved way to a wider and more diverse society that is populated by individually aspired population who wants to make a name of their own within the society that they are living in. THE United States Bill of Rights has generated so much interest that in 50 years, some 700 books have been written about it-over 40 of them this year alone. Since 1991 is the 200th anniversary of the adoption of the Bill of Rights, people were even more interested in this subject. Yet, a poll revealed that 59 percent of the American public do not know what the Bill of Rights is. When the Constitution of the United States was ratified in 1788, it allowed for amendments that would clarify positions not clearly defined in the Constitution. In 1791 the first ten amendments were added to the Constitution. These ten amendments had to do with liberty and became known as the Bill of Rights, for they guarantee to the people of the United States certain individual liberties. The word freedom in its broad sense as used in the Bible and in the field of government means merely "acting at will". "Freedom is the state of being free; liberty; self-determination. The power of acting, in the character of a moral personality, according to the dictates of the will, without other check, hindrance, or prohibition than such as may be imposed by just and necessary laws and the duties of social life." The word "liberty", as generally used, is practically synonymous with the word "freedom". "Liberty is freedom; exemption from extraneous control. The power of the will to follow the dictates of its unrestricted choice, and to direct the external acts of the individual without restraint, coercion, or control from other persons is the main idea supported by the thoughts of applying liberty in the human society. The capability of human individuals to act upon what they want and to react upon what they see the way that they want to is a clear depiction of the actual applicat ion of liberty today. According to some social psychologists, the want of being free and being able to do what they want is innate in humans. It is a major part of the human behavior that sets people apart from the being that animals follow. Everybody in the society wants to appear better than what is usually seen from others. The initial want for fame is an undeniable cause for such thinking. This is primarily the reason why the dream of having an equal society is most likely believed to have been hindered by the forces implied through the application of individual liberty. So as soon as the news spread that a constitution was in the making, freedom-loving people began a movement for a national bill of rights that would guarantee their liberties and would separate Church from State. If the people were in such fear of a centralized national government, why would they create it After the Declaration of Independence was signed in 1776, a new governmental system was needed. British rul e in each colony came to an end. The states then adopted the

What do you find irritating about a certain media text Essay Example for Free

What do you find irritating about a certain media text Essay A media text that I find quite irritating is the reality television programme Big Brother. This programme has become something of a phenomenon since it began in the Netherlands in 1999, spreading throughout various countries normally a series or two each year. The show is based around a number of contestants who are isolated from the outside world in a Big Brother House one by one being eliminated until there is an ultimate winner. The show relies on its vast audience to vote for whom they would like to be eliminated from the house each week. It is this huge response that the producers receive each year that keeps the show running, however over the years, this huge following has resulted in each contestant only applying for the show because of the quick rise to fame that follows after the show ends, and according to the Learning and Skills Council; one in seven UK teenagers hope to gain fame by appearing on reality television. The media have also become obsessed with the programme, and it is not unusual to see these contestants on the front pages of magazines, revealing shocking stories of their past. The fascination and ultimate obsession that the public has with these ordinary contestants has caused many unnecessary disagreements both on and off the show, which have dominated newspaper headlines when there may be something of greater importance to account. The idea of Big Brother did originate from Dutchman John De Mol, however the shows name comes from George Orwells novel Nineteen-Eighty-Four, in which there is a character named Big Brother who oversees all of dystopian Oceania. The contestants that are sent into the house are often chosen from a sociological perspective, where tension can arise quite easily between people, i. e. placing a loud extroverted person with quite a withdrawn individual in the same room would cause a lot of arguments due to clash of personality. These clashes of personality have cause many incidents over each series of the show, often escalating each year. One example of this would be the fifth series of Celebrity Big Brother (a spin off show of Big Brother containing contestants of a small celebrity status) which took place in January 2007, where a row sparked by racial comments towards Asian contestant Shilpa Shetty was heard around the world. Channel 4 stated that they received a record number of complaints citing racial bullying, and blamed producers for not intervening with the situation. The current prime minister Gordon Brown was hounded by the media to give his views on the incident, which one may find incredibly absurd, as it seems we live in a world where a television programme has more priority than important political affairs. The reaction in Shettys native country, India, was also incredibly shocking as citizens took to the streets of India and burned effigies of the shows organisers. After this huge and rather outrageous reaction, many protested that Big Brother should be axed from Channel 4 and a new series should not return, however this is not happen and Big Brother returned in the summer for an eighth series. The continuation of the show has much relevance to the key concepts, involving the institutions that produce shows such as Big Brother and the audiences that consume them. The reaction that the media and audiences gave to the producers on the racial bullying that appeared on Big Brother may not have been incredibly positive, however it still caused an enormous controversial uproar in the media world, which acted as good publicity for the Big Brother brand. This is proven with the rating figures that followed with Big Brother 8 which were some of the highest the show had ever received, and there is a simple reason for this audiences are addicted to the taboo effect that the show can bring into the household, along with an incredible fascination with watching and analysing ordinary people in an extraordinary environment. What is normally kept behind closed doors in everyday life is available for all to see on national television, and audiences take full advantage of the fact that it is possible to peek into anothers personal space. The media (magazines, newspapers etc. ) observe this fascination and fuel it with articles that ridicule certain contestants to pass them up to the public for furthermore analysing and examination. However, the scrutiny of certain individuals on the show does not seem fair in my opinion, but the show has become so widespread it is now a known fact that any person that enters the house is aware that the media will ridicule their lifestyle. Screenwriter Sheryl Longin stated the difference to the brain between watching reality television and scripted drama is like the difference to our vision between High Definition television and 1970s quality video. In my opinion this is incredibly unfortunate as television is being dominated by these reality television shows due to our obsession with.

Comparing Financial Ratio Analysis Between Two Companies Finance Essay

Comparing Financial Ratio Analysis Between Two Companies Finance Essay A financial report or the financial statement is known as an official record of the financial activities of a person, a business, or any other entity. In the British English also including the United Kingdom company rule; a financial statement is frequently mentioned as an account, even though the word financial statement is also mostly used, mostly by the accountants. In a business enterprise, all the related financial evidence, presented in a structured method and in a form that is really easy to copy and understand by others, are called the financial declarations. They normally contain four basic financial declarations, escorted by a management analysis and discussion. Statement of cash flows: reports that shows the cash flow activities of a company, normally its operation, financing and investing activities. Balance sheet: this is also referred as the statement of financial condition or position, reports that show the companys  assets, ownership equity, and the  liabilities at a given period of time. Statement of retained earnings: this explains the changes in the retained earnings of a company over its reporting period. Income statement: this is referred to as a Loss and Profit statement, income reports of a company, profits, and expenses over a certain period of time. Loss and Profit account is provided with information on the process of the enterprise. These include the various expenses and the sale that acquired during the dispensation state. For the large organizations, these statements are often difficult and may include a wide-ranging set of notes to the financial statements and analysis and management discussion. The notes are usually describing each item on the cash flow statement, balance sheet, and income statement in more detail. All notes to financial declarations are considered an integral part of the financial declarations. Two companies are compared and contrasted. This will show the difference of everything between both these companies. It shows the different income ane different profits earned by these companies. It also shows that even different companies have many things that do not come in common. FORMULA TIME ENGINEERING BERHAD WONG ENGINEERING CORPORATION BERHAD Liquidity Ratios Networking Capital= Current Assets Current Liabilities = 358618 113715 = 244903 = 51929026 1517900 = 50411126 Current Ratio= _Current Assets__ Current Liabilities 358618 / 113715 = 3.15 = 51929026 / 1517900 = 34.21 Quick Ratio = Current Assets (Inventory+Prepaid Expense) Current Liabilities = 358618 ( 72 + 35220 ) 113715 = 358618 ( 35292 ) 113715 = ( 323326 ) 113715 = 2.843 = 51929026 ( 19423010 + 175601 ) 1517900 = 51929026 ( 21179021 ) 1517900 = 3721752.23 Assets Utilization Ratios Accounts Receivable Turnover ( Net Credit Sales + Average Accounts Receivable) = 256536 . [ 64657 + (24970 / 2) ] = 256536 . ( 64657 + 12485 ) = 256536 77124 = 3.32 N / A Average Collection Period = Accounts Receivable Daily Credit Sales = 24970 . ( 68643 / 365 ) = 24970 118.06 = 132.7 = 133 days = 1777208 . ( 11995710 / 365 ) = 1777208 32864.96 = 54.08 = 54 days Inventory Turnover Ratio = Cost of Goods Sold Average Inventory = 64651 . ( 40964 / 2 ) = 64651 20482 = 3.16 = 63297596 . ( 19423010 / 2 ) = 63297596 9711505 = 6.52 Fixed Assets Turnover = Net Sales . Total Fixed Assets = 999132 2248486 = 0.444 = 2370124 . 147201386 = 0.016 Leverage Ratio Debt Ratio = Net Sales . Total Assets = 999132 2248486 = 0.444 = 0.444 x 100 = 44.4 % = 2370124 . 147201386 = 0.016 = 0.016 x 100 = 1.6 % Equity Ratio = Total Liabilities . Stockholders Equity = 1249165 959625 =1.301 = 15446858 129147162 = 0.120 Times Interest Earned Ratio = Earnings Before interest and Tax Interest Expense = 106497 7218 = 17.53 = 18 times N / A Profitability Ratios Gross Profit Margin = Gross Profit Net Sales = 200887 999132 = 0.201 = 0.201 x 100 = 20.1 % = 6900285 2370124 = 2.911 = 2.911 x 100 = 291.1 % Return on Total Assets = Net Income . Average Total Assets = 68643 . ( 2248486 / 2 ) = 68643 1124243 = 0.061 = 70197881 . ( 147201386 / 2 ) = 7019881 73600693 = 0.095 Return Common Equity = Earning Available to Commons Stockholders Average Stockholder Equity = 39696 959626 = 0.041 N /A Market Value Ratios Earnings per Share = Net Income-Preferred Dividends . Total Common Shares Outstanding = 24970 56490 = 0.442 N /A Dividend Yield = Dividend per Share Market Price per Share N / A N / A Conclusion Those are the following latest reports of financial reports of two different companies. As what we can see above is that WONG ENGINEERING CORPORATION BERHAD (WECB) has better network and better income compared to TIME ENGINEERING BERHAD (TEB). But both companies are from the same industries. Both of these companies are in the engineering field. They both sell products regarding engineering. By comparing these companies we can clearly see which company is much more successful and which is not. As you can see that the amounts of WONG ENGINEERING CORPORATION BERHAD is very high compared to TIME ENGINEERING BERHAD, but (WECB) has no income at all. They suffer from loss. Even though (TEB) has low income they do have some profit at the end of the day. This makes it clear that amount is not enough to make a company successful; a company needs skills to do so. Therefore the companies are compared and contrasted.

The Pigman :: essays research papers

The Pigman Lorraine is one of the main characters in the book called The Pigman. This book is about two kids, Lorraine and her good friend John. Lorraine has many different traits. One of her main traits is that she is paranoid. She also is very shy and softspoken, but can be a comedian otherwise. Lorraine can be extremely paranoid about doing things that she hasn't done before. She won't want to try something new unless it looks perfectly safe. Not that it is a bad thing, just that a lot of times it seems to get in the way of her having a good time. She seems to get this from her mother, which is always worried about her daughter and what boys might do to her. Lorraine's mother worries that she is wearing too short of dresses, or that the things that she wears are too "sexual". Even though Lorraine is quite paranoid, she doesn't seem to have a problem with ditching school. This is something that her and John would do often after they met the Pigman, Mr. Pignati. It seemed that she would never be the type to throw a party. It seemed in a way that John convinced her into it in a way. Lorraine can also be shy and softspoken. She never really stood up to her mom or rebelled in any way like John did. When her and her mom got into a fight, she was thinking about how she wanted to yell at her mom and the next minute she was over at the table comforting her. This showed that she did care about her mother, even if her mother was kind of strict. She would go along with a lot of things that John said just because she didn't want to stand up to him. This showed that she didn't really have a backbone, and that she was easily pushed around. Lorraine can also be a comedian. Her and John and Pigman would all take turns entertaining eachother by dressing up or doing something stupid, and she kept right up with them. She seemed to like to entertain people, but she just had to be in the right mood.

Dark Chocolate Essay

Chemistry Central Journal brings even more good news for chocolate lovers, stating that dark chocolate contains more flavanols and polyphenols than fruit juice. â€Å"Cacao seeds are a ‘Super Fruit’ providing nutritive value beyond that of their macronutrient composition,† said Dr Debra Miller. Chocolate and Blood Pressure The important thing is that the antioxidants in dark chocolate can significantly reduce blood pressure in patients with hypertension. According to researchers from the University of Adelaide, flavanols promote vasodilation, which may consequently lower blood pressure. â€Å"There have, however, been conflicting results as to the real-life effects of eating chocolate. We’ve found that consumption can significantly, albeit modestly, reduce blood pressure for people with high blood pressure but not for people with normal blood pressure.† added Dr Karin Ried, who is program manager and research fellow of the PHCRED (Primary Health Care Research Evaluation & Development) program at The University of Adelaide. The analysis concluded that the pressure reduction caused by chocolate consumption was comparable to the effects of 30 minutes of daily physical activity. Chocolate and Cirrhosis There are also potential benefits for liver disease patients. Spanish scientists found that eating dark chocolate lowers blood pressure in the liver and reduces damage to the blood vessels of patients with cirrhosis. A study which was presented at the International Liver Congress 2010 divided 21 cirrhotic patients with end stage liver disease into two groups. The first group received liquid meal containing dark chocolate, while the participants in the second group were getting liquid meal with white chocolate devoid of anti-oxidant properties. As a result, the patients receiving dark chocolate experienced a noticeable reduction of post-prandial increase in blood pressure in the liver. one Square Is Enough However, it is not necessary to eat huge quantities of chocolate in order to experience all the health benefits. In fact, just one small square a day may be enough to experience the health benefits chocolate is offering. A study performed in Germany that compared 19 357 individuals found that those who ate the most amount of chocolate (an average of 7.5 grams a day) were at a 39% lower risk of developing a heart attack than people with the lowest (1.7 grams) chocolate intakes. To put things into perspective, the six grams of difference are the equivalent of one small square of a typical 100g chocolate bar. â€Å"Our hypothesis was that because chocolate appears to have a pronounced effect on blood pressure, therefore chocolate consumption would lower the risk of strokes and heart attacks,† explains Dr Brian Buijsse from the German Institute of Human Nutrition, who led the research. â€Å"Small amounts of chocolate may help to prevent heart disease, but only if it replaces other energy-dense food, such as snacks, in order to keep body weight stable.†

Piaget vs. Jung

Piaget *Missing Works Cited* Piaget work has received world wide acclaim and recognition , as well as having a positive impact in areas such as education and social curricula. Though he had made an impact on understanding of the child cognitive development , his theory of cognitive development has suffered a great deal of critics that it neglects the social nature of human development. (Hook, Watts and Cockroft ,2002). So the following essay will discuss on whether this critic is valid or not based on detail discussion of Piaget theory. The theory of Vygotsky shall also be discussed to prove that indeed social factors play a role . Piaget theory of cognitive development neglects the influence of social factors on child cognitive development. (Hook et al ,2002)As stated by Hook et al (2002,p. 190)in agreement with critics like Piaget theory gave insufficient attention to the ways in which children social interaction with their sibling or parents may influence their cognitive development† . Justification of this critic is provided by the fact that Piaget (1952)saw children as lone scientist who sought to understand and build knowledge of their external world through interaction with the world . According to Piaget as stated in Siegel &Brainerd(1978)cognitive development depend on two factors , internal maturation and external maturation . That is children are incapable of learning some tasks until they reached a certain age When considering cognitive development , Piaget focuses on the mental processes that occur, rather than on the actual measure of the cognitive development. Clearly justification to this critic of insufficient has been provided by the fact that Piaget sees children as the lone scientists who sought to understand and build knowledge of their external world their interaction with it (Hooketal ,2002). According to Piaget (1960)children actively construct their own cognitive world , he also stated that information is not just poured into children minds from the environment . Clearly this critic of insufficient attention to social factors was justified . According to Piaget (1952)as stated in Hook et al (2002p180)†much of what child learns begin by accident –The child accidentally performs some action , perceives it , like it and then repeats the action assimilating it into her or his existing schemes . The above quotation provides evidence that Piaget theory neglected social factors that plays a role on cognitive development of the child. Piaget devised four stages of development spanning from birth to adolescence. The stages progress in an invariant sequence, a child moves systematically through stages and advancement into the next stage depends on the mastery of the proceeding one (1952) The succession of stages involves the movement through that four stages. According to Piaget (1952) Children must move through these stages during their childhood. These include Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concreteoperational, and Formal operational. Stage movement is an important factor of Piaget's definition of cognitive development, because Piaget (1960) states that there are a specific set of criteria that must be met and mastered at each stage. In order to move from the first stage to the next, the child must master that specific set of criteria. (Siegel & Brainerd,1978) One may argue that Piaget uses biological approach, or biological adaption to discuss the cognitive development of the child. This includes our reflexes which occur when certain stimuli trigger an instinctive response. Piaget theory explains how child cognitive develops through an intellectual regulatory process geared by adaption to the environment. (Siegel & Brainerd,1978). During this on going relationship with the environment the child exhibits certain organisations based upon assimilation, the taking in process of experience, accepting new encounters and fitting them into existing schemes, and accommodation , the reaction of the individual who encounters new experiences that are not consistent with existingschemes and so the person must change their scheme to accept or accommodate the new information(Hook et al, 2002,Siegel& brainerd, Piaget ,1960,Tryphon & voneche,1996 ,1978) . Piaget felt that a baby is an active and curious organism, that reaches out and seeks to regulate a balance between assimilation and accommodation. This balance is what Piaget describes as equilibrium. Piaget considered the process of equilibrium an important factor in the cognitive growth and development of a child. (Piaget , 1952) This was the ground were he was criticize because he said that children must be allowed to do their own learning(Piaget,1952). Lourenco & Machado (1996)in defense of Piaget theory realized that Piaget has took into consideration the fact that humans progressively develop or mature to higher states of cognitive development and realized that children acquire knowledge transmitted by parents, teachers ,and books, Piaget called this â€Å"social transmission. † Piaget believed that when a child hears contradictory statements that challenge established schemes, equilibrium is disturbed. Piaget called such a disruption in equilibrium cognitive conflict or disequilibrium. When children experience cognitive conflict they set out in search of an answer that will enable them to achieve states of equilibrium. (Lourenco & Machado,1996) Justification of this critique was also provided by Vygotsky theory of development . Vygotsky (1929) believes that adults and child’s peers are involved in shaping cognitive development of the child. As stated by Vygotsky (1929) through social activities a child learns cultural tools and social inventions . These according to Vygotsky (1929) includes language, rules and counting. Vygotsky theory is one theory that has provided justification to the critics that Piaget gave insufficient attention to social factors. Mentioned on the second page Piaget (1952) contended that cognitive development is constructed into four stages . The following paragraph will examine each stage individually focusing on social factors that he ignore on each and every stage. The sensorimotor stage is the first of the four stages Piaget uses to define cognitive development. Piaget designated the first two years of an infants life as the sensorimotor stage. During this period, infants are busy discovering relationships between their bodies and the environment. Researchers have discovered that infants have relatively well developed sensory abilities. The child relies on seeing, touching, sucking, feeling, and using their senses to learn things about themselves and the environment. Piaget calls this the sensorimotor stage because the early manifestations of intelligence appear from sensory perceptions and motor activities. Through countless informal experiments, infants develop the concept of separate selves, that is, the infant realizes that the external world is not an extension of themselves. According to Piaget(1952)Infants at this stage realize that an object can be moved by a hand and develop notions of displacement and events. An important discovery during the latter part of the sensorimotor stage is the concept of object permanence. Object permananceis the awareness that an object continues to exist even when it is not in view. In young infants, when a toy is covered by a piece of paper, the infant immediately stops and appears to lose interest in the toy. After a child has mastered the concept of object permanence, the emergence of directed groping begins to take place. With directed groping, the child egins to perform motor experiments in order to see what will happen. (Hook et al, 2002) During directed groping, a child will vary his movements to observe how the results will differ. The child learns to use new means to achieve an end. The child discovers he can pull objects toward himself with the aid of a stick or string, or tilt objects to get them through the ba rs of his playpen(Hook et al,2002). The concrete operational stage is the third stage in Piaget's theory. This stage typically occurs between the ages of 7 and 12(Hook et al , 2002) During this stage, the child begins to reason logically, and organise thoughts coherently. However, they can only think about actual physical objects, they cannot handle abstract reasoning. This stage is also characterized by a loss of egocentric thinking. During this stage, the child has the ability to master most types of conservation experiments, and begins to understand reversibility. (Piaget 1952,Maier,1978 and Hook et al , 2002). The concrete operational stage is also characterized by the child's ability to coordinate two dimensions of an object simultaneously, arrange structures in sequence, and transpose differences between items in a series. The formal operational stage is the fourth and final stage in Piaget's theory. It begins at approximately 11 to 12 years of age, and continues throughout adulthood, although Piaget does point out that some people may never reach this stage of cognitive development. The formal operational stage is characterized by the ability to formulate hypotheses and systematically test them to arrive at an answer to a problem. The individual in the formal stage is also able to think abstractly and to understand the form or structure of a mathematical problem. Another characteristic of the individual is their ability to reason contrary to fact. That is, if they are given a statement and asked to use it as the basis of an argument they are capable of accomplishing the task. For example, they can deal with the statement â€Å"what would happen if snow were black†. Mental hospital in Zurich, a famous medical hospital. He studied under Eugen Bleuler, who was a famous psychiatrist who defined schizophrenia. Jung was also influenced by Freud with whom he later became good friends. Freud called him his crown-prince. Their relationship ended when Jung wrote a book called â€Å"Symbols of Transformation. † Jung disagreed with Freud's undamental idea that a symbol is a disguised representation of a repressed wish. I will go into that later. After splitting up with Freud, Jung had a 2 year period of non- productivity, but then he came out with his â€Å"Psychological Types,† a famous work. He went on several trips to learn about primitive societies and archetypes to Africa, New Mexico to study Pueblo Indians, and to India and Ceylon to study eastern philosophy. He studied religious and occult beliefs like I Ching, a Chinese method of fortune telling. Alchemy was also one of his interests. His book, â€Å"Psychology and Alchemy,† published in 1944 is among his most important writings. He studied what all this told about the human mind. One of his methods was word association, which is when a person is given a series of words and asked to respond to them. Abnormal response or hesitation can mean that the person has a complex about that word. His basic belief was in complex or analytical psychology. The goal is psychosynthesis, or the unification and differentiation of the psyche (mind). He believed that the mind started out as a whole and should stay that way. That answered structural, dynamic, developmental questions. I will attempt to restate the major ideas and terms in this book in a pseudo- outline. It will make the understanding a bit more clear. STRUCTURE ——— DYNAMICS ——– The psyche . There are some channels into the psyche through which ene rgy can enter in form of experiences. If the psyche were a totally closed systems, it could reach a state of perfect balance, for it would not be subjected to interference from the outside. The slightest stimulus may have far-reaching consequences on one's mental stability. This shows that it is not the amount of energy that is added, but the disruptive effects that the added energy produces within the psyche. These disruptive effects are caused by massive redistributions of energy within the system. It takes only the slightest pressure on the trigger of a loaded gun to cause a great disaster. Similarly, it may take only the slightest addition of energy to an unstable psyche to produce large effects in a person's behavior. Psychic energy is also called Libido. It is not to be confused with Freud's definition of libido. Jung did not restrict libido to sexual energy as Freud did. In fact, this is one of the essential differences in the theories of the two men. It can be classified as actual or potential forces that perform psychological work. It is often expressed in desires and wants for objects. The values for things are hidden in complexes. The psyche is always active, yet it is still very difficult for people to accept this view of a continuously active psyche, because there is a strong tendency to equate psychic activity with conscious activity. Jung, as well as Freud, hammered away at this misconception, but it persists even today. The source of psychic energy is derived from one's instincts and diverted into other uses. Like a waterfall is used to create energy, you have to use your instincts to turn into energy as well. Otherwise, just like the waterfall, your instincts are completely fruitless. For example, if you think that to get a beautiful wife, you have to be rich, so you direct your sexual drive into a business persona, which will bring you money. There are two principles of psychic dynamics. What happens to all that energy? 1. Principle of Equivalence. Energy is not created nor destroyed. If it leaves something, it has to surface. For example, if a child devoted a lot of energy to reading comics, it might be redirected into a different persona, som ething like being Mr. Cool Dude! He then will loose interest in reading comics. Energy also has an inclination to carry tendencies of its source to its destination. 2. Principle of Entropy. Energy usually flows from high to low. If you have a highly developed structure (persona, for example), instead of equalizing, it may start drawing values from other systems to boost itself even higher. Such highly energized systems have a tendency to go BOOOOM! So, entropy can destroy those high energy systems if they get too big. The operation of the entropy principle results in an equilibrium of forces. Just like two bodies of different temperatures touching each other would soon equalize temperatures. The hotter one will transfer heat to the cooler one. Once a balance is reached in your psyche, according to Jung, it will be then difficult to disturb. Tho se two principles influence the following: Progression and Regression. Progression is the advance of psychological adaptation. For example, if you need a shadow (creativity, perhaps), you will try to develop one. When conflicting traits loose power, your psyche enters regression. Say, your persona and shadow are in opposition and because they are in opposition, they both would be suppressed, because neither would get enough libido, or energy. DEVELOPMENT ———– During this stage, an individual establishes his/her position in life. His vocation and marriage partner are determined. A person usually uses his Anima and Shadow to decide those things. Values are channeled into his establishment in the outside world. Once one is independent, even a small experience can influence him greatly. The Middle Age is the one often neglected by psychiatrists. Lots of people have problems in this stage. They usually don't know what to do with the energy left over that was devoted to establishing positions in society as youth. As the principle of entropy suggests, the energy is conserved, so once an adult put it to use, he must redirect it elsewhere. Jung stated that those left-over energies can be usefully diverted into spiritual contemplation and expansion. Nothing much happens in old age. People have so much energy of experiences in their psyche that even a major experience won't upset their psychological balance. Often, society will force people to assume prefered types. Types are categories of classifications of psyches which are non-absolute and have no definite boundaries. There are eight â€Å"types. † Types are combinations of functions and attitudes (page 3). The following are the eight main types: 1. Extraverted Thinking Type. This type of man elevates objective thinking into the ruling passion of his life. He is typified by the scientist who devotes his energy to learning as much as he can about the objective world. The most developed extraverted thinker is an Einstein. 2. Introverted Thinking Type. This type is inward-directed in his thinking. He is exemplified by the philosopher or existential psychologist who seeks to understand the reality of his own being. He may eventually break his ties with reality and become schizophrenic. 3. Extraverted Feeling Type. This type, which Jung observes is more frequently found in women, subordinates thinking to feeling. 4. Introverted Feeling Type. This type is also more commonly found among women. Unlike their extraverted sisters, introverted feeling persons keep their feelings hidden from the world. 5. Extraverted Sensation Type. People of this type, mainly men, take an interest in accumulating facts about the external world. They are realistic, practical, and hardheaded, but they are not particularly concerned about what things mean. 6. Introverted Sensation Type. Like all introverts, the introverted ensation type stands aloof from external objects, immersing himself in his own psychic sensations. He considers the world to be banal and uninteresting. 7. Extraverted Intuitive Type. People of this type, commonly women, are characterized by flightiness and instability. They jump from situation to situation to discover new possibilities in the external world. They are always looking for new worlds to c onquer before they have conquered old ones. 8. Introverted Intuitive Type. The artist is a representative of this type, but it also contains dreamers, prophets, visionaries, and cranks. He usually thinks of himself as a misunderstood genius. Variations in the degree to which each of the attitudes and functions are consciously developed or remain unconscious and undeveloped can produce a wide range of differences among individuals. This book is an extremely valuable source of thought provoking logic. Jung wrote with common sense, passion, and compassion, and the reader experiences a â€Å"shock of recognition†; he will recognize truths he has known, but which he has not been able to express in words. This book made me think about myself, and people in general. How people's minds work, including my own. I found a lot of â€Å"truth† or at least I though I did in Jung's teachings. I could relate some of the reading material to elements studied in class. One will be astounded by the number of Jung's ideas that anticipated those of later writers. Many of the new trends in psychology and related fields are indebted to Jung, who first gave them their direction. The book is also interesting, because of its challenging nature. I suppose that not all people would enjoy reading such type of literature, since many people in this world are sensational types. I certainly did enjoy it, and have found out some things about myself in the process. The book is very well written. It has many good analogies and explanations which even the most sensational type would understand. The collection of information is tremendous. There is so much information bundled in 130 pages, that it makes you think that 500 pages would not be enough to really explain deeply the subject matter. This book can be faultlessly us ed as a textbook, which could prove to be salutary in psychology classes. I strongly recommend reading this book to all audiences that want to. A person, content with the world around him, not wishing to challenge the puzzles of nature, should not. This book is a treasure for all who seek to explore the human mind. Our personality traits come in opposites. We think of ourselves as optimistic or pessimistic, independent or dependent, emotional or unemotional, adventurous or cautious, leader or follower, aggressive or passive. Many of these are inborn temperament traits, but other characteristics, such as feeling either competent or inferior, appear to be learned, based on the challenges and support we receive in growing up. The man who did a great deal to explore this concept is Erik Erikson. Although he was influenced by Freud, he believed that the ego exists from birth and that behavior is not totally defensive. Based in part on his study of Sioux Indians on a reservation, Erikson became aware of the massive influence of culture on behavior and placed more emphasis on the external world, such as depression and wars. He felt the course of development is determined by the interaction of the body (genetic biological programming), mind (psychological), and cultural (ethos) influences. He organized life into eight stages that extend from birth to death (many developmental theories only cover childhood). Since adulthood covers a span of many years, Erikson divided the stages of adulthood into the experiences of young adults, middle aged adults and older adults. While the actual ages may vary considerably from one stage to another, the ages seem to be appropriate for the majority of people. Erikson's basic philosophy might be said to rest on two major themes: (1) the world gets bigger as we go along and (2) failure is cumulative. While the first point is fairly obvious, we might take exception to the last. True, in many cases an individual who has to deal with horrendous circumstances as a child may be unable to negotiate later stages as easily as someone who didn't have as many challenges early on. For example, we know that orphans who weren't held or stroked as infants have an extremely hard time connecting with others when they become adults and have even died from lack of human contact. However, there's always the chance that somewhere along the way the strength of the human spirit can be ignited and deficits overcome. Therefore, to give you an idea of another developmental concept, be sure to see Stages of Growth for Children and Adults, based on Pamela Levine's work. She saw development as a spiraling cycle rather than as stages through which we pass, never to visit again. As you read through the following eight stages with their sets of opposites, notice which strengths you identify with most and those you need to work on some more. . Infancy: Birth to 18 Months Ego Development Outcome: Trust vs. Mistrust Basic strength: Drive and Hope Erikson also referred to infancy as the Oral Sensory Stage (as anyone might who watches a baby put everything in her mouth) where the major emphasis is on the mother's positive and loving care for the child, with a big emphasis on visual contact and touch. If we pass successfully through this period of life, we will learn to trust that life is basically okay and have basic confidence in the future. If we fail to experience trust and are constantly frustrated because our needs are not met, we may end up with a deep-seated feeling of worthlessness and a mistrust of the world in general. Incidentally, many studies of suicides and suicide attempts point to the importance of the early years in developing the basic belief that the world is trustworthy and that every individual has a right to be here. Not surprisingly, the most significant relationship is with the maternal parent, or whoever is our most significant and constant caregiver. . Early Childhood: 18 Months to 3 Years Ego Development Outcome: Autonomy vs. Shame Basic Strengths: Self-control, Courage, and Will During this stage we learn to master skills for ourselves. Not only do we learn to walk, talk and feed ourselves, we are learning finer motor development as well as the much appreciated toilet training. Here we have the opportunity to build self-esteem and autonomy as we gain more control over our bodies and acquire new skills, learning right from wrong. And one of our skills during the â€Å"Terrible Two's† is our ability to use the powerful word â€Å"NO! † It may be pain for parents, but it develops important skills of the will. It is also during this stage, however, that we can be very vulnerable. If we're shamed in the process of toilet training or in learning other important skills, we may feel great shame and doubt of our capabilities and suffer low self-esteem as a result. The most significant relationships are with parents. 3. Play Age: 3 to 5 Years Ego Development Outcome: Initiative vs. Guilt Basic Strength: Purpose During this period we experience a desire to copy the adults around us and take initiative in creating play situations. We make up stories with Barbie's and Ken's, toy phones and miniature cars, playing out roles in a trial universe, experimenting with the blueprint for what we believe it means to be an adult. We also begin to use that wonderful word for exploring the world—†WHY? † While Erikson was influenced by Freud, he downplays biological sexuality in favor of the psychosocial features of conflict between child and parents. Nevertheless, he said that at this stage we usually become involved in the classic â€Å"Oedipal struggle† and resolve this struggle through â€Å"social role identification. † If we're frustrated over natural desires and goals, we may easily experience guilt. The most significant relationship is with the basic family. 4. School Age: 6 to 12 Years Ego Development Outcome: Industry vs. Inferiority Basic Strengths: Method and Competence During this stage, often called the Latency, we are capable of learning, creating and accomplishing numerous new skills and knowledge, thus developing a sense of industry. This is also a very social stage of development and if we experience unresolved feelings of inadequacy and inferiority among our peers, we can have serious problems in terms of competence and self-esteem. As the world expands a bit, our most significant relationship is with the school and neighborhood. Parents are no longer the complete authorities they once were, although they are still important. 5. Adolescence: 12 to 18 Years Ego Development Outcome: Identity vs. Role Confusion Basic Strengths: Devotion and Fidelity Up to this stage, according to Erikson, development mostly depends upon what is done to us. From here on out, development depends primarily upon what we do. And while adolescence is a stage at which we are neither a child nor an adult, life is definitely getting more complex as we attempt to find our own identity, struggle with social interactions, and grapple with moral issues. Our task is to discover who we are as individuals separate from our family of origin and as members of a wider society. Unfortunately for those around us, in this process many of us go into a period of withdrawing from responsibilities, which Erikson called a â€Å"moratorium. And if we are unsuccessful in navigating this stage, we will experience role confusion and upheaval. A significant task for us is to establish a philosophy of life and in this process we tend to think in terms of ideals, which are conflict free, rather than reality, which is not. The problem is that we don't have much experience and find it easy to substitute ideals for experience. However, we can also develop strong devotion to friends and causes. It is no surprise that our most significant relationships are with peer groups. 6. Young adulthood: 18 to 35 Ego Development Outcome: Intimacy and Solidarity vs. Isolation Basic Strengths: Affiliation and Love In the initial stage of being an adult we seek one or more companions and love. As we try to find mutually satisfying relationships, primarily through marriage and friends, we generally also begin to start a family, though this age has been pushed back for many couples who today don't start their families until their late thirties. If negotiating this stage is successful, we can experience intimacy on a deep level. If we're not successful, isolation and distance from others may occur. And when we don't find it easy to create satisfying relationships, our world can begin to shrink as, in defense, we can feel superior to others. Our significant relationships are with marital partners and friends. 7. Middle Adulthood: 35 to 55 or 65 Ego Development Outcome: Generativity vs. Self absorption or Stagnation Basic Strengths: Production and Care Now work is most crucial. Erikson observed that middle-age is when we tend to be occupied with creative and meaningful work and with issues surrounding our family. Also, middle adulthood is when we can expect to â€Å"be in charge,† the role we've longer envied. The significant task is to perpetuate culture and transmit values of the culture through the family (taming the kids) and working to establish a stable environment. Strength comes through care of others and production of something that contributes to the betterment of society, which Erikson calls generativity, so when we're in this stage we often fear inactivity and meaninglessness. As our children leave home, or our relationships or goals change, we may be faced with major life changes—the mid-life crisis—and struggle with finding new meanings and purposes. If we don't get through this stage successfully, we can become self-absorbed and stagnate. Significant relationships are within the workplace, the community and the family. 8. Late Adulthood: 55 or 65 to Death Ego Development Outcome: Integrity vs. Despair Basic Strengths: Wisdom Erikson felt that much of life is preparing for the middle adulthood stage and the last stage is recovering from it. Perhaps that is because as older adults we can often look back on our lives with happiness and are content, feeling fulfilled with a deep sense that life has meaning and we've made a contribution to life, a feeling Erikson calls integrity. Our strengt h comes from a wisdom that the world is very large and we now have a detached concern for the whole of life, accepting death as the completion of life. On the other hand, some adults may reach this stage and despair at their experiences and perceived failures. They may fear death as they struggle to find a purpose to their lives, wondering â€Å"Was the trip worth it? † Alternatively, they may feel they have all the answers (not unlike going back to adolescence) and end with a strong dogmatism that only their view has been correct.